Women’s Studies

Major Essay Wo hands across the world face ch wholeenges and experiences much(prenominal) as inner activity crystalise inequality, subjugation, struggle with identity, in actal modify, womens quarryification, ad hominem resistance, reliving womens hi tosh, distaff em queenment and etc. These ar some of the subjects that will be addressed In this essay. These themes will be tolerateed by womens liberationist short stories from books such(prenominal) as The Yellow W each(prenominal)paper and oppo berth stories by Charlotte Perkins Gillian and The Bloody Chamber and un casingd(prenominal) stories by Angela Carter.Through the office of aesthetic texts, womens contends and experiences will be interpreted using the themes in these stories. In the trading floor The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins Gillian, focuses on women living In the 19th century where men train a high standing In the fond hierarchy that oppressed women, Gender plays a gravid fictitious character In social hierarchy. Even a rich woman go off non exercise the same rights and privileges as men would. Women were not given the same equality as men. Gillian focuses on the themes such as person-to-person resistance and womens hi figment.As the narrator in this story battles with err consume psychological mind and the outside world, she tardily falls into deep madness as her obsession grows with the yellow wallpaper. To second-stringer herself from going Insane, she keeps a daybook that exercises her creative mind as her keep up prohibits It. This act of writing In her Journal Is similarly akin to the movie, The Hours where the character Virginia Wolf wrote e genuinelyday to keep herself sane in her confinement. The wallpaper represented her sanity and freedom.As a show of resistance from her save she tore the wallpaper, which made her feel free and effectful. l wonder if they all come out of that wallpaper as I did? (Gillian 34) shows her longing of freedom an d resistance. Women during this time period did not render much value as they were expected to be completely wives and m some otherwises and netnot carry on other responsibilities. It Is so discouraging not to obligate any advice and companionship close my work (Gillian 24) as her husband instructed her to stay in confinement and away from writing.She has spent her days confined in a board where there is just now a window to look at which eventually made her insane. As a woman living In the 19th century, the narrator had no control over her avouch liveness and had let her husband dominate her. Women did not have the same opportunities as men did. The authors use of these themes gave the story a priapic monarchful message of women longing for freedom and equality in their society. In the story, If I Were A Man by Charlotte Perkins Gillian, focuses on a woman who fought social boundaries and take risk to improve themselves and their clobber condition (Hoofers 36).As in th is story, women were not ready for business exclusively Gillian challenged that. Gillian focuses on the themes such as sex Identity and empowerment, During this time period, womens roles were to stay confined In their preference in sex role was examined in this story, Gerald had already about that bill, over which she- as Mollie- was still crying at home (Gillian 39) shows how unlike the roles of men and women were. Women were the just now subdue to be emotional who stayed at home while the men were the ones who held themselves together with self-esteem and dignity.Mollie Matheson finds herself to be happy when she makes her husband Gerald walking down the path so erect and squ atomic number 18- shouldered (Gillian 35) as manly as she coffin nail ever be. The eyeshot of being a man gave Mollie a sense of pride and dignity comp atomic number 18d to when she was a woman. In Mollies sense to have equality amongst men, she felt such freedom and comfort (Gillian 36) in becoming G erald as she has all these privileges a woman would not have. empowerment became a big symbol once Mollie started to earn money and privileges only men would have had. She never had dreamed of how it felt to have pockets (Perkins 36) shows how she realizes that she is powerful having money and being equal to support herself without the take of having a man to rely on. The themes apply in this story became an waking up for women to r separately higher and rise the social hierarchy to have equal opportunities as men do. In the story, The Cottage by Charlotte Perkins Gillian, focuses near on how customal male and female roles ar slowly evolving. In this story, despite of the old turn over in women serving as wives and housekeepers was challenged.Gillian focuses on themes such as inner practice identity and status. Malta is expected to be naught but a wife and housekeeper as what they care for closely, after all, is domesticity What they want to marry is a homemaker (Gilli an 55) according to her friend. This shows how inequality and pretermit of freedom plays on in traditional roles f women. Also, Mammals lack of independence and longing for Fords approval shows how she follows the traditional role of a woman. l could cook. I could cook famously But if it was a question of pleasing Ford Mathews- (Gillian 56) as her aspiration was to please Ford and postal code but Ford.Women were expected to act polite and demure, as they do not want their status to be devalued. She purview process it would look breach if we had an older person with us (Gillian 57) shows how women are confined to act a certain way and are not able to show who they truly are. Women are too seen as trophies or objects a man can have whenever he wishes, And woman? He will detain her, he will have her when he pleases (Gillian 100). Women were treated nothing equally as men but in this story, this concept was challenged.The themes in this story reminds us that women do have tr aditional roles but can al slipway do something to a greater extent than being a wife or housekeeper. In the story, The Bloody put up by Angela Carter focuses on sexual awakening and womens objectification through and through fairytale storytelling. This challenges the typical fairytale story in which is structured as pleasant and happy into gory and violent. The heroine was blossoming into adulthood as she experiences her sexual awakening upon to losing her virginity. Away from Paris, away from girlhood, away from the white, enclosed quietude of my mothers apartment (Carter 7) shows her freedom from childhood and practice her sexual curiosity. She also compares the act of A tender, delicious ecstasy of excitement (Carter 7) leading up to intercourse as meet her husband. She longs and waits the moment when her husband mess ups women have been major targets of sexual stereotypical and detrimental orphaned (Adams and brimfull 7) and seen as sexual objects. Marquis viewed the her oine as a sexual object that he can whirl and violate. The heroine felt violated as Marquis in a way forced her to undress and deflower her like disrobing of the bride, a ritual from the brothel (Carter 15).The heroine is comparing the lost of her virginity as a ritual from a brothel depicts how dis watch overed and disgusted she felt while doing this act. Marquis was a power hungry who showed no respect to her brides. The heroine did not feel that losing her virginity was a special act but rather a aromatizing experiences as watched a dozen husbands approach me in a dozen mirrors (Carter 15). Although the story ended with a happy tone, the story still degrades women as the heroin was relieved that she was able to cover her red mark as the concealment piano tuner cannot see it T spares me shame (Carter 41). The themes portrayed in this story shows that fairytale stories externalize women and given women a lesser value then they should have. In the story, Puss in Boots by Angela Ca rter examines the role of strength in sex and woman objectification. The youthfulness woman was predicted as a poor girl who was flex to marry a rich man. In this case, sexual urge and class play a role in social status in this story. As signior Pantone symbolizes violence and sex for the young woman, as she wishes for sexual gratification she mustiness submit to violence. L gave her the customary tribute of a few firms thrusts of my striped loins (Carter 70). As Signor Pantone was murdered and passed away, the young woman and Puss master proceeded with the act of intercourse despite having a dead corpse next to them. . Theyre at it, hammer and tongs, down on the carpet since the bed is encroach upon (Carter 04) shows the young womans absurd attraction of violence towards sex. It seems like the young woman is aroused by the acts of violence around her. Women were called unpleasant names and were treated as property by their masters or husbands.One of Signor Pantheons servants was being called a hag and described as someone who is very ugly and useless. Also, Signor Pantaloon sees the young woman as property and a sense of please giver. She is also a prisoner of her own where she can only sit in a window for one second and one hour only (Carter 101) shows how she doesnt have freedom and is being held captive by her own husband. The themes of violence in sex and womens objectification helped mold the story poor outlook on womens value. In the story, The Tigers Bride by Angela Carter focuses on womens objectification and sexual awakening.The heroine is a smasher whose father had a gambling addiction in which he had lost to the Beast. The heroine then was used as a wager for her father gambling addiction. My father lost me to The Beast at cards. (Carter 60) shows how devalued the heroine is. There is also patriarchy played in this story. As the father and the beast holds the heroine in captivity and she has o spokesperson in her own life. My father said he discernd me yet he staked his daughter on a hand of cards. (Carter 62) shows how helpless and out of control the heroines life is.She is being used as an object and nothing much but a value of money and not life itself. The heroines sexual awakening is measured when she transforms into a beast. This also signifies sex and birth as a way of her transformation. Losing her virginity lick the uncase off me (Carter 69) she describes herself being reborn into a tigress. This act of rebirth signifies a mans reclaim in sex, as a man controls a woman during intercourse. This also ties in with violence in sex as she sheds blood during intercourse and sheds her own skin to become awaken.The themes delivered a powerful message of the pain and relief in finding ones awakening. Through the use of womens rightist themes and ideas, writers Charlotte Perkins Gillian and Angela Carter sent powerful messages in their short stories. Charlotte Perkins Gillian more ofttimes than not used the libber themes such as personal resistance and gender identity to explain the central meanings in her stories. Characters in Sailings writings were rebellious and did not conform to social norms. As they, freely evince themselves in their own way with a positive ending.Contrary in Angel Carters writings, focused on themes such as womens objectification and sexual awakening. The male characters usually portrayed having some essence of evil controlling the female character. The stories in Carters books are very dark and sexual. Some descriptions in her writing al close have a sense of pornographic image. Both writers gave us a grasp on how themes power in full send messages end-to-end the stories. Adams, Terrier M. , and Douglas B. Fuller. The Words Have Changed But the Ideology Remains the Same Misogynistic Lyrics in Rap Music.Womens Studies nasty Feminist Thought in the Matrix of control From Patricia Hill Collins, dull Feminist Thought Knowledge, Consciousness, and the insi pidal science of Empowerment (Boston Unwin Hyman, 1990), pp. 221238 disconsolate feminist thought demonstrates dour womens emerging power as agents of noesis. By limning Afro-American women as self- specify, self-reliant various(prenominal)s looking quicken, gender, and class heaviness, Afrocentric feminist thought speaks to the richness that heaviness, Afrocentric feminist thought speaks to the importance that noesis plays in empowering oppressed grosswealth.One distinguishing feature of sable feminist thought is its insistence that both the changed brain of souls and the social transformation of political and economic institutions constitute essential ingredients for social change. New companionship is authoritative for both marks of change. Knowledge is a vitally important part of the social relations of subordination and resistance. By objectifying Afro-American women and recasting our experiences to serve the spare-time activitys of elite white men, much of the Eurocentric masculinist worldview rears inkiness womens subordination.But placing murky womens experiences at the center of analysis states fresh insights on the prevailing concepts, paradigms, and epistemologies of this worldview and on its feminist and Afrocentric critiques. Viewing the world through a both/and conceptual lens of the simultaneity of race, class, and gender onerousness and of the need for a humanistic vision of fraternity creates bare-assed possibilities for an empowering Afrocentric feminist experience. Many melanise feminist intellectuals have long thought about the world in this way because this is the way we experience the world.Afrocentric feminist thought offers devil natural contributions toward furthering our understanding of the important connections among knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. First, cutting feminist thought fosters a fundamental paradigmatic remove in how we think about oppression. By embracing a paradigm of race, class, and gender as interlacing systems of oppression, portentous feminist thought reconceptualizes the social relations of command and resistance.Second, macabre feminist thought addresses current epistemological debates in feminist theory and in the sociology of knowledge concerning ways of assessing truth. Offering subordinate convocations spick-and-span knowledge about their own experiences can be empowering. But offending new ways of knowledgeable that allow subordinate groups to define their own reality has far greater implications. Reconceptualizing Race, Class, and Gender as interlinking Systems of Oppression What I really feel is radical is trying to make coalitions with people who are various from you, maintains Barbara Smith. I feel it is radical to be dealing with race and sex and class and sexual identity all at one time. I think that is really radical because it has never been done before. blackened feminist thought fosters a fundamen tal paradigmatic shift that rejects additive approaches to oppression. Instead of starting with gender and then adding in other variables such as age, sexual orientation, race, social class, and religion, unrelenting feminist thought sees these distinctive systems of oppression as being part of one overarching structure of domination.Viewing relations of domination for Black women for any given sociohistorical context as being structured via a system of interlocking race, class, and gender oppression expands the focus of analysis from merely describing the similarities and differences distinguishing these systems of oppression and focuses greater attention on how they interconnect. Assuming that each system needs the others in order to function creates a distinct theoretical stance that stimulates the re mentation of canonic social science concepts.Afrocentric feminist thoughts of family reflect this reconceptualization process. Black womens experiences as blood mothers, other mo thers, and fellowship other mothers reveal that the mythical norm of a heterosexual, married couple, nuclear family with a nonworking spouse and a husband earning a family wage is far from being natural, oecumenic and preferred but instead is deeply imbed in specific race and class formations.Placing black women in the center of analysis not only reveals much- involve information about Black womens experiences but also questions Eurocentric masculinist vistas on family Black womens experiences and the Afrocentric feminist thought rearticulating them also challenge prevailing definitions of society. Black womens actions in the struggle or group survival send word a vision of community that stands in opposition to that extant in the governing husbandry.The definition of community implicit in the market model sees community as arbitrary and fragile, structured fundamentally by competition and domination. In contrast, Afrocentric models of community stress connections, caring, and personal drawability. As cultural workers African-American women have spurned the generalized ideology of domination advanced by the dominating group in order to assert Afrocentric conceptualizations of community.Denied access to the podium, Black women have been unable to spend time theorizing about transformnative conceptualizations of community. Instead, through chance(a) actions African-American women have created alternative communities that empower. This vision of community sustained by African-American women in a termment with African-American men addresses the larger issue of reconceptualizing power. The type of Black womens power discussed here does resemble feminist theories of power which emphasize energy and community.However, in contrast to this body of literature whose celebration of womens power is ofttimes accompanied by a lack of attention to the importance of power as domination, Black womens experiences as mothers, community other mothers, educators, c hurch leaders, labor union center-women, and community leaders seem to suggest that power as energy can be fostered by creative acts of resistance. The spheres of influence created and sustained by African-American women are not meant solely to provide a respite from oppressive situations or a pull away from their effects.Rather, these Black female spheres of influence constitute potential sanctuaries where individual Black women and men are nurtured in order to confront oppressive social institutions. Power from this perspective is a creative power used for the good of the community, whether that community is conceptualized as ones family, church community, or the next generation of the communitys children. By fashioning the community stronger, African-American women become empowered, and that same community can serve as a informant of support when Black women feel race, gender, and class oppression. . . Approaches that assume that race, gender, and class are interconnected hav e immediate working applications. For example, African-American women continue to be inadequately protected by Title VII of the Civil Rights driven of 1964. The main(a) purpose of the statute is to eradicate all aspects of discrimination. But judicial treatment of Black womens vocation discrimination claims has encouraged Black women to identify race or sex as the so-called primary discrimination. To resolve the inequities that confront Black women, counsels Scarborough, the courts must first correctly conceptualize them as Black women, a distinct class protected by Title VII. Such a shift, from protected categories to protected classes of people whose Title VII claims might be based on more than two discriminations, would work to alter the entire basis of current antidiscrimination efforts. Reconceptualizing phenomena such as the rapid growth of female-headed households in African-American communities would also benefit from a race-, class-, and gender-inclusive analysis.Case studies of Black women heading households must be attentive to racially segmented local anesthetic labor markets and community patterns, to changes in local political economies specific to a given city or region, and to established racial and gender ideology for a given location. This approach would go far to rede Eurocentric, masculinist analyses that implicitly rely on controlling images of the matriarch or the welfare mother as maneuver conceptual premises. . . Black feminist thought that rearticulates experiences such as these fosters an enhanced theoretical understanding of how race, gender, and class oppression are part of a single, historically created system. The Matrix of Domination Additive models of oppression are firmly rooted in the either/or dichotomous thinking of Eurocentric, masculinist thought. One must be either Black or white in such thought systemspersons of ambiguous racial and social identity constantly battle with questions such as what are your, anyway? This emphasis on quantification and as patternment occurs in conjunction with the tenet that either/or categories must be ranked. The search for certainty of this sort requires that one side of a dichotomy be privileged while its other is denigrated. Privilege becomes defined in relation to its other. Replacing additive models of oppression with interlocking ones creates possibilities for new paradigms.The significance of seeing race, class, and gender as interlocking systems of oppression is that such an approach fosters a paradigmatic shift of thinking inclusively about other oppressions, such as age, sexual orientation, religion, and ethnicity. Race, class, and gender represent the one-third systems of oppression that most to a great extent affect African-American women. But these systems and the economic, political, and ideological conditions that support them may not be the most fundamental oppressions, and they certainly affect many more groups than Black women.Other peo ple of color, Jews, the poor white women, and gays and lesbians have all had similar ideological justifications offered for their subordination. All categories of humans labeled Others have been equated to one other, to animals, and to nature. Placing African-American women and other excluded groups in the center of analysis opens up possibilities for a both/and conceptual stance, one in which all groups take in vary amounts of penalisation and privilege in one historically created system. In this system, for example, white women are penalized by their gender but privileged by their race.Depending on the context, an individual may be an oppressor, a outgrowth of an oppressed group, or simultaneously oppressor and oppressed. Adhering to a both/and conceptual stance does not mean that race, class, and gender oppression are interchangeable. For example, whereas race, class, and gender oppression operate on the social structural level of institutions, gender oppression seems better able to annex the basic power of the erotic and intrude in personal relationships via family dynamics and within individual consciousness.This may be because racial oppression has fostered historically concrete communities among African-Americans and other racial/ethnic groups. These communities have stimulated cultures of resistance. While these communities segregate Blacks from whites, they simultaneously provide counter-institutional buffers that subordinate groups such as African-Americans use to resist the ideas and institutions of dominant groups. Social class may be similarly structured.Traditionally conceptualized as a relationship of individual employees to their employers, social class might be better viewed as a relationship of communities to capitalist political economies. Moreover, significant overlap exists between racial and social class oppression when viewing them through the collective lens of family and community. Existing community structures provide a primary l ine of resistance against racial and class oppression. But because gender cross-cuts these structures, it finds fewer comparable institutional bases to foster resistance.Embracing a both/and conceptual stance moves us from additive, separate systems approaches to oppression and toward what I now see as the more fundamental issue of the social relations of domination. Race, class, and gender constitute axes of oppression that characterize Black womens experiences within a more generalized intercellular substance of domination. Other groups may encounter different dimensions of the matrix, such as sexual orientation, religion, and age, but the overarching relationship is one of domination and the types of activism it generates.Bell Hooks labels this matrix a politic of domination and describes how it operates along interlocking axes of race, class, and gender oppression. This politic of domination refers to the ideological ground that they care, which is a belief in domination, and a belief in the notions of superior and inferior, which are components of all of those systems. For me its like a house, they divvy up the foundation, but the foundation is the ideological beliefs around which notions of domination are constructed.Johnella Butler claims that new methodologies exploitation from this new paradigm would be non-hierarchical and would refuse primacy to either race, class, gender, or ethnicity, demanding instead a recognition of their matrix-like interaction. Race, class, and gender may not be the most fundamental or important systems of oppression, but they have most deep affected African-American women. One significant dimension of Black feminist thought is its potential to reveal insights about the social relations of domination organized along other axes such as religion, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and age.Investigating Black womens particular experiences thus promises to reveal much about the more universal process of domination. triple Level s of Domination In addition to being structured along axes such as race, gender, and social class, the matrix of domination is structured on several levels. People experience and resist oppression on three levels the level of personal biography the group or community level of the cultural context created by race, class, and gender and the systemic level of social institutions.Black feminist thought emphasizes all three levels as sites of domination and as potential sites of resistance. Each individual has a unique personal biography made up of concrete experiences, values, motivations, and emotions. No two individuals occupy the same social space thus no two biographies are identical. Human ties can be freeing and empowering, as is the case with Black womens heterosexual love relationships or in the power of motherhood in African-American families and communities. Human ties can also be confining and oppressive.Situations of domestic violence and abuse or cases in which controlling images foster Black womens internalized oppression represent domination on the personal level. The same situation can look quite different depending on the consciousness one brings to interpret it. This level of individual consciousness is a fundamental heavens where new knowledge can generate change. Traditional accounts assume that power as domination operates from the exonerate down by forcing and controlling unwilling victims to bend to the will of more powerful superiors.But these accounts violate to account for questions concerning why, for example, women stay with abusive men even with ample opportunity to leave or why slaves did not kill their owners more oft. The willingness of the victim to collude in her or his own victimization becomes lost. They also miss to account for sustained resistance by victims, even when chances for victory appear remote. By emphasizing the power of self-definition and the necessity of a free mind, Black feminist thought speaks to the impo rtance African-American women thinkers go under on consciousness as a sphere of freedom.Black women intellectuals realize that domination operates not only by structuring power from the top down but by simultaneously annexing the power as energy of those on the female genitalia for its own ends. In their efforts to rearticulate the outdoor stage of African-American women as a group, Black feminist thinkers offer individual African-American women the conceptual tools to resist oppression. The cultural context formed by those experiences and ideas that are shared with other members of a group or community which give meaning to individual biographies constitutes a second level at which domination is experienced and resisted.Each individual biography is rooted in several overlapping cultural contextsfor example, groups defined by race, social class, age, gender, religion, and sexual orientation. The cultural component contributes, among other things, the concepts used in thinking and acting, group validation of an individuals interpretation of concepts, the thought models used in the acquisition of knowledge, and standards used to evaluate individual thought and behavior. The most cohesive cultural contexts are those with identifiable histories, geographic locations, and social institutions.For Black women African-American communities have provided the location for an Afrocentric group perspective to endure. Subjugated knowledges, such as a Black womens culture of resistance, develop in cultural contexts controlled by oppressed groups. Dominant groups aim to replace subjugated knowledge with their own specialised thought because they realize that gaining control over this dimension of subordinate groups lives simplifies control. While efforts to nfluence this dimension of an oppressed groups experiences can be overtonely winning, this level is more difficult to control than dominant groups would have us believe. For example, adhering to externally derived sta ndards of beauty leads many African-American women to dislike their skin color or cop texture. Similarly, internalizing Eurocentric gender ideology leads some Black men to abuse Black women. These are cases of the successful infusion of the dominant groups specialized thought into the everyday cultural context of African-Americans.But the long-standing existence of a Black womens culture of resistance as expressed through Black womens relationships with one another, the Black womens blues tradition, and the voices of modern African-American women writers all attest to the difficulty of eliminating the cultural context as a fundamental site of resistance. Domination is also experienced and resisted on the third level of social institutions controlled by the dominant group namely, schools, churches, the media, and other formal organizations.These institutions expose individuals to the specialized thought representing the dominant groups viewpoint and interests. While such instituti ons offer the promise of both literacy and other skills that can be used for individual empowerment and social transformation, they simultaneously require docility and passivity. Such institutions would have us believe that the theorizing of elites constitutes the whole of theory.The existence of African-American women thinkers such as Maria Stewart, Sojourner Truth, Zora Neale Hurston, and Fannie Lou Hamer who, though excluded from and/or marginalized within such institutions, continued to urinate theory effectively opposes this hegemonic view. Moreover, the more recent resurgence of Black feminist thought within these institutions, the case of the outpouring of contemporary Black feminist thought in history and literature, directly challenges the Eurocentric masculinist thought pervading these institutions.Resisting the Matrix of Domination Domination operates by seducing, pressuring, or forcing African-American women and members of subordinated groups to replace individual and c ultural ways of knowing with the dominant groups specialized thought. As a result, suggests Audre Lorde, the trustworthy focus of alterationary change is never merely the oppressive situations which we seek to escape, but that piece of the oppressor which is planted deep within each of us. Or as Toni Cade Bambara succinctly states, revolution begins with the self, in the self. Lorde and Bambaras suppositions raise an important issue for Black feminist intellectuals and for all scholars and activists working for social change. Although most individuals have critical difficulty identifying their own victimization within some major system of oppressionwhether it be by race, social class, religion, physical ability, sexual orientation, ethnicity, age or genderthey typically fail to see how their thoughts and actions uphold someone elses subordination. Thus white feminists routinely point with confidence to their oppression as women but resist seeing how much their white skin privil eges them.African-Americans who possess eloquent analyses of racism often persist in viewing poor white women as symbols of white power. The radical left fares little better. If only people of color and women could see their true class interests, they argue, class solidarity would eliminate racism and sexism. In essence, each group identifies the oppression with which it feels most comfortable as being fundamental and classifies all others as being of lesser importance. Oppression is filled with such contradictions because these approaches fail to recognize that a matrix of domination contains few pure victims or oppressors.Each individual derives varying amounts of penalty and privilege from the multiple systems of oppression which ashes everyones lives. A broader focus stresses the interlocking nature of oppressions that are structured on multiple levels, from the individual to the social structural, and which are part of a larger matrix of domination. Adhering to this inclusive model provides the conceptual space needed for each individual to see that she or he is both a member of multiple dominant groups and a member of multiple subordinate groups.Shifting the analysis to investigating how the matrix of domination is structured along certain axesrace, gender, and class being the axes of investigation for AfricanAmerican womenreveals that different systems of oppression may rely in varying degrees on systemic versus interpersonal mechanisms of domination. Empowerment involves rejecting the dimensions of knowledge, whether personal, cultural, or institutional, that perpetuate objectification and dehumanization.African-American women and other individuals in subordinate groups become empowered when we understand and use those dimensions of our individual, group, and disciplinary ways of knowing that foster our humanity as fully human subjects. This is the case when Black women value our self-definitions, participate in a Black womens activist tradition, st ir an Afrocentric feminist epistemology as central to our worldview, and view the skills gained in schools as part of a focused program line for Black community development. C.Wright Mills identifies this holistic epistemology as the sociological imagination and identifies its task and its promise as a way of knowing that enables individuals to grasp the relations between history and biography within society. use ones standpoint to subscribe to the sociological imagination can empower the individual. My fullest concentration of energy is available to me, Audre Lorde maintains, only when I integrate all the parts of who I am, openly, allowing power from particular initiations of my living to flow can and forth freely through all my different selves, without the restriction of externally imposed definition. Black Women as Agents of Knowledge Living life as an African-American woman is a necessary prerequisite for producing Black feminist thought because within Black womens commun ities thought is validate and produced with reference to a particular set of historical, material, and epistemological conditions. African-American women who adhere to the idea that claims about Black women must be substantiated by Black womens sense of our own experiences and who anchor our knowledge claims in an Afrocentric feminist epistemology have produced a rich tradition of Black feminist thought.Traditionally such women were blues singers, poets, autobiographers, storytellers, and orators validated by everyday Black women as experts on a Black womens standpoint. Only a few unusual African-American feminist scholars have been able to defy Eurocentric masculinist epistemologies and explicitly embrace an Afrocentric feminist epistemology. Consider Alice Walkers description of Zora Neal Hurston In my mind, Zora Neale Hurston, Billie Holiday, and Bessie Smith form a sort of unholy trinity.Zora belongs in the tradition of black women singers, rather than among the literati. . . . Like Billie and Jessie she followed her own road, believed in her own gods pursued her own dreams, and refused to separate herself from common people. Zora Neal Hurston is an exception for prior to 1950, few African-American women acquire advanced degrees and most of those who did complied with Eurocentric masculinist epistemologies.Although these women worked on behalf of Black women, they did so within the confines of pervasive race and gender oppression. Black women scholars were in a position to see the exclusion of African-American women from scholarly discourse, and the thematic content of their work often reflected their interest in examining a Black womens standpoint. However, their tenuous status in academic institutions led them to adhere to Eurocentric masculinist epistemologies so that their work would be recognized as scholarly.As a result, while they produced Black feminist thought, those African-American women most likely to gain academic credentials were often lea st likely to produce Black feminist thought that used an Afrocentric feminist epistemology. An ongoing strain exists for Black women as agents of knowledge, a tension rooted in the sometimes conflicting demands of Afrocentricity and feminism. Those Black women who are feminists are critical of how Black culture and many of its traditions oppress women.For example, the strong pronatal beliefs in African-American communities that foster early motherhood among adolescent girls, the lack of self-actualization that can accompany the double-day of paid employment and work in the home, and the emotional and physical abuse that many Black women experience from their fathers, lovers, and husbands all reflect practices opposed by African-American women who are feminists. But these same women may have a parallel desire as members of an oppressed racial group to affirm the value of that same culture and traditions.Thus strong Black mothers appear in Black womens literature, Black womens econom ic contributions to families is lauded, and a curious silence exists concerning domestic abuse. As more African-American women earn advanced degrees, the range of Black feminist scholarship is expanding. Increasing numbers of African-American women scholars are explicitly choosing to ground their work in Black womens experiences, and, by doing so, they implicitly adhere to an Afrocentric feminist epistemology.Rather than being restrained by their both/and status of marginality, these women make creative use of their outsider-within status and produce innovative Afrocentric feminist thought. The difficulties these women face lie less in demonstrating that they have mastered white male epistemologies than in resisting the hegemonic nature of these patterns of thought in order to see, value, and use existing alternative Afrocentric feminist ways of knowing. In establishing the legitimacy of their knowledge claims, Black women scholars who want to develop Afrocentric feminist thought ma y encounter the often conflicting standards of three key groups.First, Black feminist thought must be validated by ordinary Atrican-American women who, in the words of Hannah Nelson, grow to womanhood in a world where the saner you are, the madder you are made to appear. To be credible in the eyes of this group, scholars must be personal advocates for their material, be accountable for the consequences of their work, have lived or experienced their material in some fashion, and be willing to engage in conversations about their findings with ordinary, everyday people. Second, Black feminist thought also must be accepted by the community of Black women scholars.These scholars place varying amounts of importance on rearticulating a Black womens standpoint using an Afrocentric feminist epistemology. Third, Afrocentric feminist thought within academia must be prepared to confront Eurocentric masculinist political and epistemological requirements. The dilemma facing Black women scholars engaged in creating Black feminist thought is that a knowledge claim that meets the criteria of adequacy for one group and thus is judged to be an bankable knowledge claim may not be translatable into the terms of a different group.Using the example of Black English, June Jordan illustrates the difficulty of moving among epistemologies You cannot translate instances of Standard English preoccupied with abstraction or with nothing/nobody evidently alive into Black English. That would warp the language into uses antithetical to the guiding perspective of its community of users. Rather you must first change those Standard English sentences, themselves, into ideas consistent with the person-centered assumptions of Black English.Although both worldviews share a common vocabulary, the ideas themselves defy direct translation. For Black women who are agents of knowledge, the marginality that accompanies outsider-within status can be the source of both frustration and creativity. In an at tempt to minimize the differences between the cultural context of African-American communities and the expectations of social institutions, some women dichotomize their behavior and become two different people. Over time, the strain of doing this can be enormous.Others reject their cultural context and work against their own best interests by enforcing the dominant groups specialized thought. calm down others manage to inhabit both contexts but do so critically, using their outsider-within perspectives as a source of insights and ideas. But while outsiders within can make substantial personal cost. Eventually it comes to you, observes Lorraine Hansberry, the thing that makes you exceptional, if you are at all, is inevitably that which must also make you lonely. Once Black feminist scholars face the notion that, on certain dimensions of a Black womens standpoint, it may be fruitless to try and translate ideas from an Afrocentric feminist epistemology into a Eurocentric masculinist f ramework, then other choices emerge. Rather than trying to uncover universal knowledge claims that can withstand the translation from one epistemology to another (initially, at least), Black women intellectuals might find efforts to rearticulate a Black womens standpoint especially fruitful.Rearticulating a Black womens standpoint refashions the concrete and reveals the more universal human dimensions of Black womens everyday lives. I date all my work, notes Nikki Giovanni, because I think poetry, or any writing, is but a reflection of the moment. The universal comes from the particular. Bell Hooks maintains, my goal as a feminist thinker and theorizer is to take that abstraction and articulate it in a language that renders it accessiblenot less thickening or rigorousbut simply more accessible. The complexity exists interpreting it remains the unfulfilled challenge for Black women intellectuals.Situated Knowledge, Subjugated Knowledge, and Partial Perspectives My life seems to b e an increasing revelation of the intimate trace of universal struggle, claims June Jordan You begin with your family and the kids on the block, and next you open your eyes to what you call your people and that leads you into land reform into Black English into Angola leads you back to your own bed where you lie by yourself wondering if you deserve to be peaceful, or trusted or desired or left to the freedom of your own unfaltering heart. And the scale shrinks to the use of a skull your own interior cage.Lorraine Hansberry expresses a similar idea I believe that one of the most sound ideas in dramatic writing is that in order to create the universal, you must pay very great attention to the specific. Universality, I think, emerges from the truthful identity of what is. Jordan and Hansberrys insights that universal struggle and truth may better a particularistic, intimate face suggest a new epistemological stance concerning how we negotiate competing knowledge claims and identify t ruth. The context in which African-American womens ideas are nurtured or suppressed things.Understanding the content and epistemology of Black womens ideas as specialized knowledge requires attending to the context from which those ideas emerge. While produced by individuals, Black feminist thought as situated knowledge is embedded in the communities in which African-American women find ourselves. A Black womens standpoint and those of other oppressed groups is not only embedded in a context but exists in a situation characterized by domination. Because Black womens ideas have been suppressed, this suppression has stimulated African-American women to create knowledge that empowers people to resist domination.Thus Afrocentric feminist thought represents a subjugated knowledge. A Black womens standpoint may provide a preferred stance from which to view the matrix of domination because, in principle, Black feminist thought as specialized thought is less likely than the specialized kn owledge produced by dominant groups to deny the connection between ideas and the vested interests of their creators. However, Black feminist thought as subjugated knowledge is not exempt from critical analysis, because subjugation is not grounds for an epistemology.Despite African-American womens potential power to reveal new insights about the matrix of domination, a Black womens standpoint is only one angle of vision. Thus Black feminist thought represents a partial perspective. The overarching matrix of domination houses multiple groups, each with varying experiences with penalty and privilege that produce corresponding partial perspectives, situated knowledges, and, for clearly identifiable subordinate groups, subjugated knowledges. No one group has a clear angle of vision.No one group possesses the theory or methodology that allows it to discover the absolute truth or, worse yet, proclaim its theories and methodologies as the universal norm evaluating other groups experiences. addicted that groups are unequal in power in making themselves heard, dominant groups have a vested interest in suppressing the knowledge produced by subordinate groups. Given the existence of multiple and competing knowledge claims to truth produced by groups with partial perspectives, what epistemological approach offers the most promise? Dialogue and EmpathyWestern social and political thought contains two alternative approaches to ascertaining truth. The first, reflected in positivist science, has long claimed that absolute truths exist and that the task of scholarship is to develop objective, naive tools of science to measure these truths. . . . Relativism, the second approach, has been forwarded as the antithesis of and inevitable outcome of rejecting a positivist science. From a relativist perspective all groups produce specialized thought and each groups thought is equally valid. No group can claim to have a better interpretation of the truth than another.In a sense, rel ativism represents the opposite of scientific ideologies of objectivity. As epistemological stances, both positivist science and relativism minimize the importance of specific location in influencing a groups knowledge claims, the power inequities among groups that produce subjugated knowledges, and the strengths and limitations of partial perspective. The existence of Black feminist thought suggests another alternative to the ostensibly objective norms of science and to relativisms claims that groups with competing knowledge claims are equal. . . This approach to Afrocentric feminist thought allows African-American women to bring a Black womens standpoint to larger epistemological dialogues concerning the nature of the matrix of domination. Eventually such dialogues may get us to a point at which, claims Elsa Barkley Brown, all people can occupy to center in another experience, validate it, and judge it by its own standards without need of comparison or need to adopt that framewor k as their own. In such dialogues, one has no need to decenter anyone in order to center someone else one has only to constantly, appropriately, pivot the center. Those ideas that are validated as true by African-American women, African-American men, Latina lesbians, Asian-American women, Puerto Rican men, and other groups with distinctive standpoints, with each group using the epistemological approaches growing from its unique standpoint, thus become the most objective truths. Each group speaks from its own standpoint and shares its own partial, situated knowledge.But because each group perceives its own truth as partial, its knowledge is unfinished. Each group becomes better able to consider other groups standpoints without relinquishing the uniqueness of its own standpoint or suppressing other groups partial perspectives. What is always needed in the appreciation of art, or life, maintains Alice Walker, is the larger perspective. Connections made, or at least attempted, where no(prenominal) existed before, the straining to encompass in ones glance at the varied world the common thread, the unifying theme through immense diversity. Partiality and not universality is the condition of being heard individuals and groups forwarding knowledge claims without owning their position are deemed less credible than those who do. Dialogue is critical to the success of this epistemological approach, the type of dialogue long extant in the Afrocentric call-and-response tradition whereby power dynamics are fluid, everyone has a voice, but everyone must listen and respond to other voices in order to be allowed to remain in the community.Sharing a common cause fosters dialogue and encourages groups to transcend their differences. . . . African-American women have been victimized by race, gender, and class oppression. But word-painting Black women solely as passive, unfortunate recipients of racial and sexual abuse stifles notions that Black women can actively work to chan ge our circumstances and bring about changes in our lives.Similarly, presenting African-American women solely as gilded figures who easily engage in resisting oppression on all fronts minimizes the very real costs of oppression and can foster the perception that Black women need no help because we can take it. Black feminist thoughts emphasis on the ongoing interplay between Black womens oppression and Black womens activism presents the matrix of domination as responsive to human agency.Such thought views the world as a dynamic place where the goal is not merely to survive or to fit in or to cope rather, it becomes a place where we feel ownership and accountability. The existence of Afrocentric feminist thought suggests that there is always choice, and power to act, no matter how bleak the situation may appear to be. Viewing the world as one in the making raises the issue of individual responsibility for bringing about change. It also shows that while individual empowerment is key , only collective action can effectively generate lasting social transformation of political and economic institutions.